The district is characterized by its diverse topography, featuring hills, valleys, and rivers. The Mai Pokhari lake, surrounded by evergreen forests, adds to the scenic beauty of Illam. This destination attracts nature lovers and trekkers who explore its picturesque trails.

Illam is not only a treat for the eyes but also a melting pot of cultures. The diverse ethnic groups residing here contribute to a vibrant tapestry of traditions and festivals. Visitors can immerse themselves in the local customs, sample traditional cuisine, and experience the warmth of Nepalese hospitality.

Exploring Illam provides a unique opportunity to witness the tea-making process, from plucking the leaves to the final production. The tea gardens are an integral part of the local economy, and a visit to Illam offers insights into the significance of this industry in the region.

In addition to its natural and cultural attractions, Illam provides a serene environment for those seeking tranquility and a break from the hustle and bustle of city life. The crisp mountain air, coupled with the sound of rustling leaves, creates a perfect setting for relaxation and rejuvenation.

Whether it's sipping freshly brewed tea, trekking through the verdant landscapes, or engaging with the local communities, Illam offers a distinctive and memorable experience for those seeking a blend of nature, culture, and adventure in the heart of Nepal.

Early Days

The Eighties

Formal Institutional Structure

The Slow Emergence of Coffee as a Cash Crop

The Turnaround

The Collective Trademark 'Nepal Coffee'

In recent times, there has been an abundance of news in Nepal highlighting the wastage of agricultural products. It is astonishing to learn that Nepalese farmers are discarding their produce due to inadequate prices, while the country is simultaneously importing agricultural goods from India. This is a shameful state of affairs for Nepal's economy.

Various analyses and case studies should be conducted to address the issue described above. The Nepalese government should also pay attention to this critical yet often overlooked issue. It is unacceptable that Nepal's agricultural production is being wasted while the same products are being imported from other countries. The government should inquire into the needs of farmers and determine ways to motivate them to increase their production. These are important questions that the government should be asking itself.

Here are some possible reasons why farmers may be wasting their agricultural products on the road rather than selling it in the market:

1. Lack of Proper Market Access:

The agricultural marketing system in Nepal is characterized by a high degree of disorganization. The absence of any well-defined and structured system of measurement in rural areas has led to a situation where farmers are at the mercy of middlemen who exploit them. Farmers are not aware of the actual value of their products and are therefore unable to get a fair price. The middlemen determine the price of the products and often earn more than the farmers themselves. This has resulted in a demotivated farming community that is discouraged from increasing its production.

2. Less Bargaining Power:

Low bargaining power means that farmers have limited ability to negotiate the prices and terms of sale for their products. When farmers are not able to get a fair price for their products, they may become demotivated to sell them. This is because they may feel that their hard work and efforts are not being appropriately compensated.

3. Inadequate Irrigation Facilities:

Adequate irrigation is vital for agriculture, yet in Nepal, the irrigation facilities are insufficient. Nepalese farmers heavily rely on the monsoon for their irrigation needs, and only 55.8% of cultivated land has access to irrigation. Even the available irrigation facilities are not operational throughout the year, resulting in lower productivity. Without sufficient irrigation, it is impossible to increase productivity, which can ultimately lead to decreased production by farmers.

4. Lack of Physical Infrastructure:

The development of agriculture in Nepal is hindered by the insufficient physical infrastructure necessary for its growth. Essential facilities such as roads, irrigation systems, equipment, machinery, warehouses, and market centers are necessary for the exchange of agricultural products and for increasing the income of farmers. The absence of proper infrastructure also impedes the marketing of products, resulting in lower sales.

5. Inappropriate Government Policy:

The government's policy for the development of the agriculture sector in Nepal is inadequate. The agriculture policy does not consider the geographical location, regional prospects, or the needs of the people. Additionally, there is a lack of proper coordination between policies, priorities, programs, strategies, and their implementation, resulting in farmers not receiving a fair price for their products.

6. Lack of Storage Facility:

Nepalese farmers do not have access to storage facilities for their products, which compels them to sell at low prices during the harvesting season. They are unable to store their products for sale when demand and prices are high. Additionally, a significant amount of agricultural products is damaged by insects and rodents in traditional warehouses.

7. Existence of Middleman:

The majority of farmers in Nepal sell their products in local markets, which are typically intermediated by middlemen before reaching the ultimate consumers. As farmers lack organization, bargaining skills, and power, the pricing and flow of products heavily rely on middlemen. As a result, consumers end up paying higher prices, while farmers do not receive reasonable compensation for their products.

The Nepal government can take several measures to prevent farmers from wasting their products on the road and encourage them to sell in the market:

1. Provision of Storage Facilities:

Nepalese farmers do not have adequate warehouse facilities for storing their agricultural products, resulting in damage to the products' quality by pests, insects, dust, and weather conditions. Therefore, the Nepalese government should provide sufficient cold storage warehouses to farmers to encourage increased production.

2. Development of Transportation Facility:

Nepal's transportation network is inadequate, particularly in rural areas where all-weather roads are scarce and even existing transport facilities become unusable during the rainy season. As a result, farmers are unable to transport their products easily to market centers and sell them at reasonable prices. Therefore, the government should invest in the development of transportation facilities for agricultural products to improve farmers' access to markets.

3. Establish Market Linkages:

Establishing market linkages between farmers and potential buyers can assist farmers in finding dependable buyers for their products and reduce the need to sell to middlemen at low prices.

4. Ensure Proper Implementation of Policies:

The proper implementation of policies supporting the development of the agricultural sector by the government would create a conducive environment for farmers to sell their products at fair prices, ultimately reducing product wastage on the roads.

5. Remedies of Middleman:

Middlemen discourage farmers from producing and selling their products by taking advantage of their lack of knowledge and bargaining power. Most farmers sell their products in local markets, with middlemen playing a significant role in the product's flow to the ultimate consumer. Therefore, the government should penalize middlemen who offer farmers low prices for their products while charging high prices to consumers.

While farmers may face challenges with their production, wasting is not an appropriate solution. If farmers have any issues with their production, they should communicate with relevant parties, but it's important to keep in mind that wasting is not a viable solution.

Commercial Tea Farming in Nepal: Statistics and Distribution

Among the country's 77 districts, only 14 have commercialized tea cultivation. According to research report of NRB, around 9,236 farmers/businessmen are engaged in commercial tea farming, of which 9,127 (98.8%) are individual and 108 (1.2%) are institutional. It seems that these farmers/businessmen have 12,066.5 hectares of land for tea farming, with the most significant area, 7,195.15 hectares, being in the Jhapa district and the least, 25 hectares, in the Morang district.

From the data, it is apparent that the tea production industry in Nepal is largely driven by small-scale, family-run farms. These farms produce an estimated 10 crores 80 thousand metric tons of green tea leaves annually, with the most significant production of 8 crores 25 lakhs 17 thousand metric tons being in the Jhapa district and the least, 1.8 metric tons, in Bhojpur. The industry provides a livelihood for 18,180 family members, with 9,374 male and 8,807 female workers involved in tea farming.

Furthermore, there are 113 tea factories in Nepal, where the green leaves are processed to produce different types of tea. The factories are concentrated mainly in the eastern part of the country, particularly in the Jhapa and Ilam districts.

The Role of Training in Commercial Tea Farming

Despite being small-scale, the commercial tea farming industry in Nepal is growing, and training plays a vital role in this growth. According to the data, 53.4 percent of the major operators of commercial tea cultivation have received training. The training provided by various organizations and institutions in Nepal includes technical knowledge about tea farming, processing, packaging, and marketing.

The Importance of Commercial Tea Farming in Nepal

Tea production is an essential industry in Nepal, not only for economic reasons but also for social and environmental reasons. Some of the major importants of tea farming in Nepal are:

1. Provides livelihood for thousands of farmers and their families, particularly in rural areas.
2. Contributes to the overall development of the country's economy, particularly in the areas where tea farming is prevalent.
3. Promotes sustainable agriculture practices, as tea farming involves the minimum use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
4. Supports soil conservation and biodiversity, thereby contributing to the conservation of the country's natural resources.
5. Generates foreign exchange earnings, as Nepal's tea is exported to various countries around the world.
6. Creates employment opportunities in the tea processing and manufacturing industry, which includes jobs for skilled and unskilled workers.
7. Contributes to the overall socio-economic development of the country, as tea farming and production help to alleviate poverty and improve the standard of living for farmers and their families.
8. Promotes tea tourism in the country, as Nepal's tea gardens and plantations attract both domestic and international tourists.
9. Helps to preserve Nepal's traditional tea culture and heritage, which has been passed down through generations.

Challenges and Opportunities for Tea Production in Nepal

Despite the growth and potential of the tea industry in Nepal, there are also opportunities and challenges that need to be addressed. Some of them are:

Challenges:

1. Lack of Infrastructure and Facilities:

   One of the primary challenges facing the tea production industry in Nepal is the lack of infrastructure and facilities. This is particularly the case in remote areas where tea farming is prevalent. Poor transportation systems make it difficult for farmers to transport their produce to the markets, resulting in increased costs and decreased profitability.

2. Marketing and Branding:

   Nepal is not yet a well-known tea producer compared to its neighboring countries, and the industry needs to focus on marketing and branding to increase its visibility and reach. The lack of marketing and branding has resulted in lower prices for Nepali tea compared to tea produced in other countries.

3. Climate Change:

   The changing climate is also a challenge for tea production in Nepal. Variations in temperature and rainfall patterns can significantly affect the quality and yield of the tea produced. The changing climate can also lead to the emergence of pests and diseases, which can affect the quality and yield of the tea.

Opportunities:

1. Organic and Natural Products:

   The growing interest in organic and natural products presents a significant opportunity for Nepali tea. Nepali tea is produced using minimum chemicals and pesticides, making it a natural and organic product. This has the potential to appeal to consumers looking for healthy and sustainable products.

2. High-Quality Specialty Teas:

   There is a growing demand for high-quality specialty teas, which Nepal is well-positioned to produce. Nepali tea is known for its high quality and unique taste, which can appeal to consumers looking for specialty teas.

3. Tourist Industry:

   Nepal's growing tourism industry presents an opportunity for the tea production industry. Tourists are often interested in trying local products, and Nepali tea can be promoted as a unique and authentic local product. This can increase the visibility and demand for Nepali tea.

In conclusion, while the tea production industry in Nepal faces significant challenges, there are also several opportunities. Addressing the challenges and leveraging the opportunities can lead to the growth and success of the industry, benefiting both the farmers and the overall economy of Nepal.

Agro e-commerce refers to the use of online platforms to connect farmers directly with consumers, streamlining the supply chain and increasing the efficiency of the agriculture sector. It is the online place for buying and selling of agricultural products and services through online platforms By leveraging technology and data, agro e-commerce has the potential to revolutionize the way food is grown, distributed, and consumed in Nepal.

In this article, we will explore the benefits of agro e-commerce in Nepal, including improved access to markets, increased efficiency, better prices for farmers, and a wider range of locally grown produce. We will also discuss the challenges facing the growth of agro e-commerce in Nepal, including limited access to credit, language barriers, and resistance from traditional intermediaries.

By understanding the benefits and challenges of agro e-commerce in Nepal, we can gain insights into how this innovative approach to agriculture can be used to revolutionize the sector and support the livelihoods of millions of people in the country.

Benefits of Agro E-Commerce in Nepal

The benefits of agro e-commerce in Nepal are numerous and can have a significant impact on the country's agriculture sector. The following are some of the key benefits of agro e-commerce in Nepal:

1. Increased access to markets:

   Farmers can bypass intermediaries and connect directly with consumers through online platforms, providing them with access to new markets and potentially increasing their income.

2. Improved supply chain efficiency:

   Online platforms can help farmers manage their inventory, track orders, and monitor sales, reducing waste and improving the efficiency of the supply chain.

3. Wider range of inputs:

   Farmers can access a wider range of inputs, such as seeds, fertilizers, and equipment, through online platforms, helping to increase productivity and improve crop yields.

4. Improved food safety and quality:

   Farmers can receive feedback from consumers and make changes to their growing practices if necessary, improving food safety and quality. Consumers can also receive information about the origin of their food, building trust in the food supply chain.

5. Increased convenience for consumers:

   Online platforms provide consumers with access to a wider range of locally grown produce, and the convenience of purchasing food from the comfort of their own homes.

6. Data analysis:

   Online platforms provide farmers with data analysis, helping them make informed decisions about their crops and businesses.

7. Price discovery:

   Online platforms provide farmers with real-time market information, allowing them to make informed decisions about pricing their products.

8. Reduction in transaction costs:

   By connecting directly with consumers, farmers can reduce the costs associated with intermediaries and improve their bottom line.

9. Better marketing:

   Online platforms provide farmers with the ability to market their products to a wider audience, increasing the visibility of their business and attracting new customers.

10. Improved access to financing:

    By providing a transparent record of sales and inventory, online platforms can help farmers access financing to grow their businesses.

11. Improved sustainability:

    By connecting consumers with locally grown produce, agro e-commerce can help to reduce food miles and improve the sustainability of the food supply chain.

12. Better collaboration:

    Online platforms provide farmers with the ability to collaborate with other farmers and industry partners, improving their competitiveness and helping them to grow their businesses.

13. Increased transparency:

    Online platforms provide consumers with access to information about the origin of their food, helping to build trust in the food supply chain and improve transparency.

Challenges for Agro E-Commerce in Nepal

While the benefits of agro e-commerce in Nepal are numerous, there are also several challenges that must be overcome to support the growth of the industry. The following are some of the key challenges facing agro e-commerce in Nepal:

1. Lack of infrastructure:

   Nepal has limited infrastructure, including inadequate roads, power supplies, and internet connectivity, making it difficult for farmers to participate in online platforms.

2. Limited digital literacy:

   Many farmers in Nepal are not familiar with technology, making it difficult for them to use online platforms effectively.

3. Trust issues:

   Consumers may be hesitant to purchase food online, due to concerns about the safety and quality of the products.

4. Logistics and distribution:

   Inadequate logistics and distribution networks can make it difficult to transport goods from farmers to consumers in a timely and cost-effective manner.

5. Lack of standardization:

   There may be a lack of standardization in the quality and safety of products sold through online platforms, leading to confusion and mistrust among consumers.

6. Competition from traditional markets:

   Traditional markets and intermediaries may be resistant to the growth of agro e-commerce, due to concerns about losing business.

7. Cost:

   The initial investment required to set up an online platform and the ongoing costs associated with maintaining it can be prohibitive for some farmers.

8. Regulation:

   There may be a lack of clear and consistent regulations for online platforms in Nepal, making it difficult for farmers and consumers to participate in the market.

9. Limited access to credit:

   Farmers in Nepal may struggle to access credit to finance their businesses, making it difficult for them to grow and participate in online platforms.

10. Lack of support from government:

    The government may not provide adequate support to the agriculture sector in Nepal, making it difficult for farmers to participate in online platforms and grow their businesses.

11. Inadequate storage and processing facilities:

    The lack of storage and processing facilities in Nepal can result in food waste and reduce the quality of products available through online platforms.

12. Language barriers:

    Many farmers in Nepal may not be fluent in English or other languages used by online platforms, making it difficult for them to participate in the market.

13. Security concerns:

    Online platforms may be vulnerable to cyber attacks, which can compromise the privacy and security of farmers and consumers.

14. Resistance from traditional intermediaries:

    Traditional intermediaries, such as wholesalers and retailers, may resist the growth of agro-e-commerce as it threatens their businesses.

15. Limited product variety:

    The limited variety of products available through online platforms may discourage consumers from using the platforms, reducing demand for locally grown produce.

16. Fragmented market:

    The agriculture sector in Nepal may be fragmented, with many small-scale farmers and limited organization, making it difficult for farmers to participate in online platforms.

In conclusion, agro-ecommerce has the potential to revolutionize the agriculture industry by providing farmers with access to new markets, improving supply chain efficiency, and improving food safety and quality. While there are challenges to its growth, these can be overcome with the right policies and investments in technology and infrastructure. As the world continues to look for solutions to the challenges facing agriculture, agro-e-commerce can play one of the important role in shaping the future of this critical industry.

History and Evolution of Traditional Irrigation Systems in Nepal

• Irrigation systems in Nepal can be traced back to the Lichchhavi period (400–750 AD), where terrace farming and water management systems were used to cultivate crops.
• During the Malla period (1200–1768 AD), the construction of stone spouts and canals was developed for irrigation purposes.
• The Rana period (1846–1951) saw a shift towards the use of modern irrigation systems, but traditional systems were still widely used.
• Today, traditional irrigation systems continue to be used in Nepal, particularly in rural and remote areas where modern systems are not feasible or accessible.

List of various types of traditional irrigation systems found in different regions of Nepal

• Terrace farming

  This method involves the construction of terraces on hillsides to retain water and prevent soil erosion. This type of irrigation system is commonly found in the hilly regions of Nepal.

• Sunken pond irrigation

  This system uses a pond dug into the ground to store water and is typically found in the Terai region of Nepal.

• Canal irrigation

  This method involves the construction of canals to channel water from rivers or streams to crops. This type of system is widely used in the Chitwan and Kaski districts of Nepal.

• Stone spout irrigation

  This system involves the use of stone spouts to channel water from rivers or streams to crops. This type of system is commonly found in the Kathmandu Valley and the Mustang district of Nepal.

• Floodwater irrigation

  This system involves the use of floodwaters from rivers or streams to irrigate crops. This type of system is commonly found in the Terai region of Nepal, particularly in the low-lying areas near major rivers.

• Rope and bucket irrigation

  This system involves the use of a rope and bucket to manually lift water from a nearby source and transport it to crops. This type of system is commonly found in the mountainous regions of Nepal, where access to water is limited.

• Dug-well irrigation

  This system involves the use of wells dug into the ground to access underground water sources for irrigation. This type of system is commonly found in the Terai region of Nepal, particularly in areas with high water tables.

• Piped irrigation

  This system involves the use of pipes to channel water from rivers or streams to crops. This type of system is commonly found in the Kathmandu Valley and the Pokhara region of Nepal.

Impact of Traditional Irrigation Systems on Local Communities and Agriculture

• Traditional irrigation systems have played a vital role in the development of agriculture in Nepal, particularly in dry and arid regions where water is scarce.
• These systems have provided a reliable source of water for crops, leading to increased crop yields and food security for local communities.
• Traditional irrigation systems have also created job opportunities in the fields of construction and maintenance.
• They have also helped to preserve the natural environment by preventing soil erosion and promoting water conservation.
• However, traditional irrigation systems are often labor-intensive and require constant maintenance to function effectively.
• Also, the traditional irrigation systems are not capable of handling heavy rainfall and floods, which results in damage to the crops and infrastructure.

Traditional irrigation systems in Nepal are a testament to the country's rich history of ancient engineering techniques. These systems have played a crucial role in the development of agriculture and the livelihoods of local communities. The various types of systems found in different regions of the country demonstrate the ingenuity of Nepal's ancestors in developing water management systems to suit their specific needs and environments. Although traditional irrigation systems are still in use today, they are often not as efficient as modern systems. However, it is important to recognize the valuable contributions of traditional irrigation systems in the country's history and to preserve them for future generations. It is also important to upgrade these traditional systems to adapt to the changing climate and weather conditions.

The food industry in Nepal is a major contributor to the country's economy, with a diverse range of products including grains, vegetables, fruits, dairy products, meat, and processed foods. The country's food industry is characterized by a mix of traditional and modern production methods, with a significant portion of food being produced by small-scale farmers and producers.

Agriculture is the mainstay of Nepal's economy, with approximately 80% of the population engaged in farming and related activities. The country is known for its production of rice, wheat, maize, millet, pulses, and oilseeds, as well as a variety of fruits and vegetables. Nepal's highland regions are particularly well-suited for the production of horticultural crops, including apples, apricots, and plums.

The dairy industry is an important part of the food industry in Nepal, with milk being the country's largest agricultural export. Nepal is home to a variety of indigenous cattle breeds, including the Nepalese native, which is known for its high-quality milk production. The dairy industry has undergone significant modernization in recent years, with the introduction of modern breeding and production techniques.

Meat production is also an important part of the food industry in Nepal, with the country producing a variety of meats including chicken, mutton, and beef. Poultry production has seen significant growth in recent years, with the introduction of modern production methods and the expansion of the market for poultry products.

The food processing industry in Nepal is relatively small, with a limited range of processed foods being produced. However, there is potential for growth in this sector, with the government investing in food processing infrastructure and encouraging the development of the food processing industry.

Overall, the food industry in Nepal is diverse and includes a range of products and production methods. The industry is an important contributor to the country's economy and has the potential for further growth and development.

Nepal is a small country with an area of 1,471,181 sq. km. Economically, Nepal is the least developed country in the world and agriculture is the main occupation. Agriculture forms the principal occupation of the people of Nepal. Agriculture's contribution to GDP was 26.21 percent in the fiscal year 2019/20. A large majority of the people of our country are peasants. The peasants mostly live in the village area. They are found on the hills, in the valleys, and on the plains. Though Nepal is a small country, the peasants of Nepal differ from region to region.

The peasants of Nepal are mostly poor. They live in small houses or huts. They eat poor food and wear ragged clothes. Most of them are illiterate. They are too preoccupied with their work to notice what is going on in the world. They live in unclean surroundings. They're ignorant of hygiene and sanitation. That’s why they suffer from diseases. They are so poor that they can't send their children to school.

Most of the peasants have small plots of land. The produce of the land is hardly sufficient to maintain themselves and their families. Some peasants have no land of their own; they own less than one hectare of land, and their income is insufficient even to meet their basic needs. Most of them cannot get two meals a day. They have hardly any subsidiary occupations. They remain idle in the off-season. They cultivate the land of others, and they are poorer than landed peasants. 

The peasants are very busy during the working season. They work in the fields from morning to night. They are helped by their wives and children. They work with spades and hoes. The peasants of the plains plow their fields with the help of oxen, while those of the hills and the valleys generally dig their fields with spades. The peasants keep animals like cows, oxen, goats, and sheep. These animals help them in their work and they are a source of small income as they also provide them with milk.

The peasants generally follow the traditional methods of cultivation. The product of their land is not high. They do not use good seeds and fertilizers. They do not have irrigation facilities. They cannot sell their product at a profitable rate. They have to market their goods in their localities, and they are hard hit by the scarcity of roads.

Nepalese peasants are facing different types of problems, the problems prevail in the Nepalese peasants are:

Traditional technique:

Nepalese peasants are highly dependent on traditional techniques. Due to a lack of education and widespread poverty, Nepalese farmers are unable to increase production and productivity. They are either ignorant or unable to use modern tools and techniques as well as improved seeds, fertilizers, insecticides, etc.

Inadequate irrigation facilities:

Irrigation is the lifeblood of peasants, but the irrigation facilities are not adequate in Nepal. Peasants are highly dependent on the monsoon for irrigation. Irrigation is available on only 55.8 percent of cultivated land. Productivity can't be increased without an adequate irrigation facility. Similarly, improved manure and modern technology cannot be effective without the availability of adequate irrigation.

Lack of agricultural credit :

In Nepal, about 18.7 percent of the people are below the poverty line and most of them are peasants. They are unable to invest more capital in farming. They need adequate credit facilities to make investments in agriculture. Institutional credit facilities are very limited in Nepal, and those that are available are also out of reach for poor farmers for a variety of reasons, including security concerns and lengthy formalities.

Lack of marketing facilities :

There is no organized agricultural marketing system in Nepal. Due to the absence of transportation facilities, rural areas lack marketing facilities. The peasants are forced to sell their products cheaply to local traders. That’s why peasants are discouraged from investing and producing more.

Defective land tenure system:

There is dual ownership of land in Nepal. Tenants cultivate the land, and more benefit goes to the land owner's hand without any labor or physical work. In practice, the rent charged by the landowner exceeds 50% of the amount specified by law. Because of that, peasants have no enthusiasm to increase productivity.

Existence of middleman:

Most of the peasants sell their products in the local market due to the unavailability of marketing facilities and storage facilities. The products are passed through the middleman to the ultimate consumers. Peasants have no bargaining skills or power. Price determination and the flow of products are dependent on middlemen. So, the consumers have to pay a high price, and the producers do not get a reasonable price.

Lack of storage facility:

Nepalese peasants have no storage facility for their products. So they are compelled to sell their products at a low price during the harvesting season. They are unable to store their product to sell at a time when demand and prices are high.

The peasants of Nepal require a great deal of help to improve their condition. The land reform act has improved their condition to some extent. The agricultural bank is helping them with loans. The department of agriculture is helping them with seeds and fertilizers. The government is diverting its attention to the assistance of the peasants; the peasants still require a lot of help and guidance. Everyone should try to help them.

Characteristics of Nepalese agriculture:

1. Subsistence farming:

Most of the farmers from Nepal follow agriculture for substance purposes, i.e. just for their own consumption, not for commercialization.

2. Traditional  farming system:

Some Nepalese farmers still use the old farming technique. They still use the same tools and methods used by their ancestors. Only a few farmers have started to use modern technology to improve farming.

3. Dual ownership of land:

There are many cases of landlord and tenant land ownership in Nepalese agriculture. Although the landlord doesn’t have any effort in production, they will still be the ones who will be in more profit. As a result, tenants are discouraged from producing less and working less.

4. Unequal distribution of land:

The distribution of land is highly biased in Nepal. The number of farmers who have less than 1 hectare of land is very small in Nepal. According to the Nepal, living standards survey 2010/11, 53% of farmers hold less than 1 hectare of land and only 4% of farmers have more than 2 hectares of land for cultivation.

5. Underemployment and disguised unemployment

Since agriculture is seasonable in nature, people are not employed all year round. Marginal productivity of increased labour in agriculture is almost zero. Due to this disguised unemployment exists in Nepalese agriculture.

The contribution of all provinces in agriculture:

Province 1: This province is extremely supported by agriculture and tourism. It covers some fertile terai districts that produce a profusion of food grains. Rice, maize, jute, and sugarcane are major crops in the Terai region, while tea, cardamom, ginger, and citrus grown within the hills and high hills are the main sources of earnings. The important livestock businesses are milk production, piggery, and poultry farming. Farmers of the Terai region also produce fruits like mango, litchi, and banana. For the production of tea, Ilam and Jhapa are the major districts.

Province 2: It lies in the south-eastern region of Nepal and is the smallest province in terms of area. This province lies only in the Thai region and carries the highest potential for agriculture production. The majority of the population is Madheshi, with the highest density among all provinces. It contains the most fertile and suitable land for agriculture and is the most important contributor to the economy through food production and fishing. The region produces various crops such as rice, wheat, maize, sugarcane, jute, and vegetables and is highly commercialized. Likewise, fish farming is also a major source of income for the people of this province. Almost 50 % of total fish production in the country comes from this province. Therefore, this province plays a great role in the country's economy and agriculture.

Province 3: In terms of population, this province is the largest. Almost 90% of the area falls within the hills and high hills. It does not contain the core part of Thailand but has some agricultural lands in Chitwan, Makwanpur, and Sindhuli. This region has a high food deficit not because of small production but of highly populated metropolitans like Kathmandu, Lalitpur, and Bharatpur this region's main sources of income are service, hydroelectricity, the remittance industry, and agriculture. Poultry, dairy, and vegetables are highly commercialized in this region. People are engaged in agriculture for their domestic use and to produce small quantities.

Province 4: This province consists of 10 districts and the eastern part of the former Nawalparasi district. It's also an agriculture-based province. It's estimated that 64% of the population is engaged in agriculture. Tourism and hydropower are the most important economic sectors. The majority of climate styles are offered in this province due to its rich diversity. Except for rice, the province is deficient in fruits and vegetables and relies on self-sufficiency rather than commercialization for cereals. It's highly deficient in onion, garlic, oilseed, and pulses. The people of this province are involved in agriculture, tourism, industry, services, and foreign employment. This province collects the best remittances. The key food crops grown in this province are paddy,maize, millet, and wheat. The cash crops include potatoes, coffee, apples, and oranges.

Province 5 is formed by both the hilly region and plain land of the Terai. The rivers like Karnali, Bheri, Rapti, and Babai provide opportunities for great irrigation in the province. The Sikta irrigation project and the Babai irrigation project have benefited agricultural production. This province is ideal and suitable for agriculture production as the land is very fertile and a good source of irrigation. Paddy, mustard, wheat, maize, sugarcane, vegetables, potatoes, lentils, and cotton are the major crops. The major trade centers are Butwal, Bhairahawa, Nepalgunj, Kohalpur, Tulsipur, Krishnanagar, and Gulariya. It has a great source of agriculture and tourism.

Province 6: It is located in Nepal's western region. This is the biggest province of all in size. The food is highly expensive and dependent. The province is fertile for fruits like apples, oranges, and pomegranates, which are traded all over the country. Maize, barley, wheat, millet, and paddy are the major food crops. This province's cash crops are most likely mustard, soybeans, and hot chili. The special paddy crop known as "Jumli Marsi" is a very popular breed of paddy which is produced in Jumla. Medicinal plants are major products that sustain the economies of many people. Because of the big Karnali River, this province is capable of earning much through hydroelectricity.

Province 7: It lies in the westernmost part of Nepal, which is also the second smallest province. This province lies in the high food insecurity region. There is a high potential for medicinal and valuable crops. The major trade centers of this province are Dhangadhi, Dadeldhura, Mahendranagar, and Dayal. The main crops grown in this province are wheat, mustard, maize, and cotton. People are also engaged in fishing and farming.